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8 Skills a Python Programmer Should Master

8 Skills a Python Programmer Should Master

Python has become the lingua franca of the computing world. It has come to become the most sought after programming language for deep learning, machine learning and artificial intelligence. It is a favourite with programmers because it is easy to understand and learn and it achieves a lot more in terms of productivity as compared to other languages.

Python is a dynamic, high-level, general-purpose programming language that is useful for developing desktop, web and mobile applications that can also be used for complex scientific and numeric applications, data science, AI etc. Python focuses a lot on code readability.

From web and game development to machine learning, from AI to scientific computing and academic research, Data science and analysis, python is regarded as the real deal. Python is useful in domains like finance, social media, biotech etc. Developing large software applications in Python is also simpler due to its large amount of available libraries.

The Python developer usually deals with backend components, apps connection with third-party web services and giving support to frontend developers in web applications. Of course, one might create applications with use of different languages but pretty often Python is the language chosen for it – and there are several reasons for that.

In this article, we will walk through a structured approach to top 8 skills required to become a Python Developer. These skills are:

  • Core Python
  • Good grasp of Web Frameworks
  • Front-End Technologies
  • Data Science
  • Machine Learning and AI
  • Python Libraries
  • Multi-Process Architecture
  • Communication Skills

Core Python

This is the foundation of any Python developer. If one wants to achieve success in this career, he/she needs to understand the core python concepts. These include the following:

  • Iterators
  • Data Structures
  • Generators
  • OOPs concepts
  • Exception Handling
  • File handling concepts
  • Variables and data types

However, learning the core language (as mentioned above) is only the first step in mastering this language and becoming a successful Python developer.

Good grasp of Web Frameworks

By automating the implementation of redundant tasks, frameworks cut development time and enable developers to focus greatly on application logic rather than routine elements.

Because it is one of the leading programming languages, there is no scarcity of frameworks for Python. Different frameworks have their own set of advantages and issues. Hence, the selection needs to be made on the basis of project requirements and developer preference. There are primarily three types of Python frameworks, namely full-stack, micro-framework, and asynchronous.

A good Python web developer has incredible honing over either of the two web frameworks Django or Flask or both. Django is a high-level Python Web Framework that encourages a good, clean and pragmatic design and Flask is also widely used Python micro web framework.

Front-End Technologies (JavaScript, CSS3, HTML5)

Sometimes, Python developers must work with the frontend team to match together the server-side and the client-side. This means Python developers need a basic understanding of how the frontend works, what’s possible and what’s not, and how the application will appear.

While there is likely a UX team, SCRUM master, and project or product manager to coordinate the workflow, it’s still good to have a basic understanding of front-end tasks.

Data Science

Data science offers a world of new opportunities. Being a Python developer, there are several prerequisites you need to know starting with things you learn in high school mathematics, such as statistics, probability, etc. Some of the other parts of data science you need to understand, and use include SQL knowledge; the use of Python packages, data wrangling and data cleanup, analysis of data, and visualization of data.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (as well as Deep Learning) are constantly growing. Python is the perfect programming language which is used in all the frameworks of Machine Learning and Deep Learning. This will be a huge plus for someone if he/she knows about this domain. If someone is into data science, then definitely digging in the Machine Learning topic would be a great idea.

Python Libraries

Python libraries certainly deserve a place in every Python Developer’s toolbox. Python has a massive collection of libraries, both native and third-party libraries. With so many Python libraries out there, though, it’s no surprise that some don’t get all the attention they deserve. Plus, programmers who work exclusively in one domain don’t always know about the goodies available to them for other kinds of work.

Python libraries are extensively used in simplifying everything from file system access, database programming, and working with cloud services to building lightweight web apps, creating GUIs, and working with images, ebooks, and Word files—and much more.

Multiprocessing Architecture

Multiprocessing refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor at the same time. Applications in a multiprocessing system are broken to smaller routines that run independently. The operating system allocates these threads to the processors improving performance of the system. As a Python-Developer one should definitely know about the MVC (Model View Controller) and MVT (Model View Template) Architecture. Once you understand the Multi-Processing Architecture you can solve issues related to the core framework etc.

Communication Skills

In best software development firms the teams are made out of amazing programmers which work together to achieve the final goal – no matter if it means to finish the project, to create a new app or maybe to help a startup. However, working in a team means that a developer has to communicate well – not only to get the stuff done but also to keep the documentation clear so others can easily read and follow the thinking path to fully understand the idea.

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Conclusion

In this write-up, we have elaborated on the top skills one needs to have to be a successful Python Developer. One must have a working knowledge of Core Python and a good grasp of Web Frameworks, Front-End Technologies, Data Science, Machine Learning and AI, Python Libraries, Multi-Process Architecture and Communication skills. Though there are a few more skills not listed in this blog, one can achieve success in developing large software applications by mastering all the above skills only.

As delineated in the article, Python is the new rage in the computing world. And it is no surprise then that more and more professionals are opting to take up courses teaching Machine learning using Python and python for data analysis.

 

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AI – A Great Opportunity For Cyber Security Solutions

AI - A Great Opportunity For Cyber Security Solutions

AI and machine learning are the new rage in the computing world. And for reasons justified. With advancement in technology, the threat to technological systems and businesses online has also advanced and become more complex.

Cyber criminals are constantly coming up with newer mechanisms to break into cyber systems for theft or disruption. Thus, the cyber security industry is in a fix over what it can do to enhance security features of existing systems. AI and Machine Learning are the answer to its woes.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning work on large sets of data, analyzing them and finding patterns in them. AI helps interpret data and make sense of it to yield solutions and ML learns up intuitively how to spot patterns in the data. The two go hand in hand and complement each other.

Cybersecurity solutions pivot on the science of finding and spotting patterns and planning the right response to these. They have the ability to tap into data and detect a set of code as malicious, even if no one has noticed it or flagged it before. Thus, it becomes complementary to AI in that it involves the cyber security software to be tutored to detect and alert the user about an anomaly or trigger an alarm if a corruption crosses the threshold without being prompted.  

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning are used in Spam Filter Applications, Network Intrusion Detection and Prevention, Fraud detection, Credit scoring, Botnet Detection, Secure User Authentication, Cyber security Ratings and Hacking Incident Forecasting.

They are much faster than human users deploying software to detect of fight cyber attacks and they do not tire unlike their human counterparts while assessing tons of data and malicious aspects of those data. They are thus not prone to desensitization that a human user would be prone to.

Application of AI in cyber security solutions is akin to taking things up a notch higher up. Without AI, cyber security would lose the option of having the software learn by itself by merely observing sets of data and user patterns.

An AI system would develop a digital fingerprint of the user based on his habits and preferences. This would help in the event of someone other than the user trying to break into his or her system. And AI cyber security systems do this work 24X7, unlike a human user who would spend limited time scanning for malicious codes or components.

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AI and machine learning, since their inception, have transformed the world of cyber security forever. With time, both aspects of the computing world will refine and mature. It is only a matter of time before a user’s cyber security system becomes tailored to her needs.

And it is thus not surprising that more and more professionals are opting for artificial intelligence courses to equip themselves with relevant coursework. The world is moving to reap the benefits of AI intelligence. So, if you are interested in doing the same, opt for an artificial intelligence course in delhi or a Machine Learning course in India by enrolling yourself with DexLab Analytics.

 

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Artificial Intelligence and IT Operations: A new algorithm

Artificial Intelligence and IT Operations: A new algorithm

Artificial intelligence used to automate IT operations has begun being widely termed as AIOps, a new algorithm of deep learning put to use in the field of information technology to speed up businesses and response timings to incidents occurred. It is the new rage after AI itself. And, justifiably so.

Information technology is constantly in flux, changing every minute. To keep up with it, old systems will not work. What is needed for its management is smart and fast computer programs which can keep learning and re-use learnt skills with more and more operations carried out. Trends show that worldwide spending on AI systems will hit the $77.6 billion mark in 2020, three times the amount forecasted for 2018, the IDC revealed recently.

Trends show AIOps will take centre stage when it comes to problem solving and accelerating detection of incidents and remediation.  As AIOps tools mature, IT systems will be able to work on and process a larger variety of data types in a faster and better manner, enhancing performance for more specific jobs assigned to it.

AI experts in the field say AIOps will be used to enhance and increase natural language processing, analysis of the root cause of problems, detection of anomalies, and correlation and analysis of events, among other IT functions, thus giving IT operations professionals greater control over their systems.

AI technology can help improve efficiency in vital industries like healthcare and agriculture. A case in point is the development of the Chatbot which has come to contextualize and give more intuitive and human like responses to customers.

In 2020, it is expected of IT firms to introduce data-source-agnostic solutions. This new tool will be a big boost for the industry as the more varied and variegated the data fed into an AIOps platform, the greater the insights and value the algorithms can come up with. This will directly translate to mean users can determine, more accurately, issues, foresee impacts and fathom how change can affect business-critical activities.

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One drawback of the current AIOps systems are that they take a lot of time on-boarding and its takes time training company professionals in the use of the AI software as well as feeding the software with vast amounts of data and information. This is a challenge that will have to be met in the coming few years as more and more of the IT world is adopting AI in its systems.

The AIOps is being used increasingly in Indian IT firms as well, they recognizing the need to embrace the AI juggernaut the world has bowed down to. For artificial intelligence certification in Delhi NCR one can sign up for a course at DexLab Analytics which might have the perfect machine Learning course in India for you.

 

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A Handbook of the Basic Data Types in Python 3: Strings

A Handbook of the Basic Data Types in Python 3: Strings

In general, a data type defines the format, sets the upper & lower bounds of the data so that a program could use it appropriately. Data types are the classification or categorization of data items which describes the character of a variable. The most used data types are numeric, non-numeric and Boolean (true/false).

Python has the following standard Data Types:

  • Booleans
  • Numbers
  • String
  • List
  • Tuple
  • Set
  • Dictionary

Mutable and Immutable Objects

Data objects of the above types are stored in a computer’s memory for processing. Some of these values can be modified during processing, but the contents of the others can’t be altered once they are created in the memory.

Number values, strings, and tuple are immutable, which means their contents can’t be altered after creation.

On the other hand, the collection of items in a List or Dictionary object can be modified. It is possible to add, delete, insert, and rearrange items in a list or dictionary. Hence, they are mutable objects.

Booleans

A Boolean is such a data type that almost every programming language has, and so does Python. Boolean in Python can have two values – True or False. These values can be used for assigning and comparison.

Numbers

Numbers are one of the most prominent Python data types. In Numbers, there are mainly 3 types which include Integer, Float, and Complex.

String

A sequence of one or more characters enclosed within either single quotes ‘or double quotes” is considered as String in Python. Any letter, a number or a symbol could be a part of the string. Multi-line strings can be represented using triple quotes,”’ or “””.

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List

Python list is an array-like construct which stores a heterogeneous collection of items of varied data typed objects in an ordered sequence. It is very flexible and does not have a fixed size. The Index in a list begins with a zero in Python.

Tuple

A tuple is a sequence of Python objects separated by commas. Tuples are immutable, which means tuples once created cannot be modified. Tuples are defined using parentheses ().

Set

A set is an unordered collection of items. Set is defined by values separated by a comma inside braces { }. Amongst all the Python data types, the set is one which supports mathematical operations like union, intersection, symmetric difference etc. Since the set derives its implementation from the “Set” in mathematics, so it can’t have multiple occurrences of the same element.

Dictionary

A dictionary in Python is an unordered collection of key-value pairs. It’s a built-in mapping type in Python where keys map to values. These key-value pairs provide an intuitive way to store data. To retrieve the value we must know the key. In Python, dictionaries are defined within braces {}.

This article is about one specific data type, which is a string. The String is a sequence of characters enclosed in single (”) or double quotation (“”) marks.

Here are examples of creating strings in Python.

Counting Number of Characters Using LEN () Function

The LEN () built-in function counts the number of characters in the string.

Creating Empty Strings

Although variables S3 and S4 do not contain any characters they are still valid strings. S3 and S4 both represent empty strings here.

We can verify this fact by using the type () function.

String Concatenation

String concatenation means joining one or more strings together. To concatenate strings in Python we use + operator.

String Repetition Operator (*)

Just like in numbers, * operator can also be used with strings. When used with strings * operator repeats the string n number of times. Its general format is: 1 string * n,

where n is a number of type int.

Membership Operators – in and not in

The in or not in operators are used to check the existence of a string inside another string. For example:

Indexing in a String

In Python, characters in a string are stored in a sequence. We can access individual characters inside a string by using an index.

An index refers to the position of a character inside a string. In Python, strings are 0 indexed. This means that the first character is at index 0; the second character is at index 1 and so on. The index position of the last character is one less than the length of the string.

To access the individual characters inside a string we type the name of the variable, followed by the index number of the character inside the square brackets [].

Instead of manually counting the index position of the last character in the string, we can use the LEN () function to calculate the string and then subtract 1 from it to get the index position of the last character.

We can also use negative indexes. A negative index allows us to access characters from the end of the string. Negative index starts from -1, so the index position of the last character is -1, for the second last character it is -2 and so on.

Slicing Strings

String slicing allows us to get a slice of characters from the string. To get a slice of string we use the slicing operator. Its syntax is:

str_name[start_index:end_index]

str_name[start_index:end_index] returns a slice of string starting from index start_index to the end_index. The character at the end_index will not be included in the slice. If end_index is greater than the length of the string then the slice operator returns a slice of string starting from start_index to the end of the string. The start_index and end_index are optional. If start_index is not specified then slicing begins at the beginning of the string and if end_index is not specified then it goes on to the end of the string. For example:

Apart from these functionalities, there are so many built-in methods for strings which make the string as the useful data type of Python. Some of the common built-in methods are as follows: –

capitalize ()

Capitalizes the first letter of the string

join (seq)

Merges (concatenates) the string representations of elements in sequence seq into a string, with separator string.

lower ()

Converts all the letters in a string that are in uppercase to lowercase.

max (str)

Returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

min (str)

Returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.

replace (old, new [, max])

Replaces all the occurrences of old in a string with new or at most max occurrences if max gave.

 split (str=””, num=string.count(str))

Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not provided) and returns list of substrings; split into at most num substrings if given.

upper()

Converts lowercase letters in a string to uppercase.

Conclusion

So in this article, firstly, we have seen a brief introduction of all the data types of python. Later in this article, we focused on the strings. We have seen several Python operations on strings as well as the most common useful built-in methods of strings.

Python is the language of the present age, wherein almost every field there is a need for Python. For example, Python for data analysisMachine Learning Using Python has been easy and comprehensible than they were ever before. Thus, if you are also interested in Python and looking for promising courses Computer Vision Course PythonRetail Analytics using PythonNeural Network Machine Learning Python, then get in touch with Dexlab Analytics now and step into the world of opportunities!

 

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Python Statistics Fundamentals: How to Describe Your Data? (Part II)

Python Statistics Fundamentals: How to Describe Your Data? (Part II)

In the first part of this article, we have seen how to describe and summarize datasets and how to calculate types of measures in descriptive statistics in Python. It’s possible to get descriptive statistics with pure Python code, but that’s rarely necessary.

Python is an advanced programming language extensively used in all of the latest technologies of Data Science, Deep Learning and Machine learning. Furthermore, it is particularly responsible for the growth of the Machine Learning course in IndiaMoreover, numerous courses like Deep Learning for Computer vision with Python, Text Mining with Python course and Retail Analytics using Python are pacing up with the call of the age. You must also be in line with the cutting-edge technologies by enrolling with the best Python training institute in Delhi now, not to regret it later.

In this part, we will see the Python statistics libraries which are comprehensive, popular, and widely used especially for this purpose. These libraries give users the necessary functionality when crunching data. Below are the major Python libraries that are used for working with data.

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NumPy and SciPy – Fundamental Scientific Computing

NumPy stands for Numerical Python. The most powerful feature of NumPy is the n-dimensional array. This library also contains basic linear algebra functions, Fourier transforms, advanced random number capabilities. NumPy is much faster than the native Python code due to the vectorized implementation of its methods and the fact that many of its core routines are written in C (based on the CPython framework).

For example, let’s create a NumPy array and compute basic descriptive statistics like mean, median, standard deviation, quantiles, etc.

SciPy stands for Scientific Python, which is built on NumPy. NumPy arrays are used as the basic data structure by SciPy.

Scipy is one of the most useful libraries for a variety of high-level science and engineering modules like discrete Fourier transforms, Linear Algebra, Optimization and Sparse matrices. Specifically in statistical modelling, SciPy boasts of a large collection of fast, powerful, and flexible methods and classes. It can run popular statistical tests such as t-test, chi-square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Mann-Whitney rank test, Wilcoxon rank-sum, etc. It can also perform correlation computations, such as Pearson’s coefficient, ANOVA, Theil-Sen estimation, etc.

Pandas – Data Manipulation and Analysis

Pandas library is used for structured data operations and manipulations. It is extensively used for data preparation. The DataFrame() function in Pandas takes a list of values and outputs them in a table. Seeing data enumerated in a table gives a visual description of a data set and allows for the formulation of research questions on the data.

The describe() function outputs various descriptive statistics values, except for the variance. The variance is calculated using the var() function in Pandas.

The mean() function, returns the mean of the values for the requested axis.

Matplotlib – Plotting and Visualization

Matplotlib is a Python library for creating 2D plots. It is used for plotting a wide variety of graphs, starting from histograms to line plots to heat plots. One can use Pylab feature in IPython notebook (IPython notebook –pylab = inline) to use these plotting features inline. If the inline option is ignored, then pylab converts IPython environment to an environment, very similar to Matlab.

matplotlib.pylot is a collection of command style functions.

If a single list array is provided to the plot() command, matplotlib assumes it is a sequence of Y values and internally generates the X value for you.

Each function makes some change to a figure, like creating a figure, creating a plotting area in a figure, decorating the plot with labels, etc. Now, let us create a very simple plot for some given data, as shown below:

Scikit-learn – Machine Learning and Data Mining

Scikit-learn built on NumPy, SciPy and matplotlib. Scikit-learn is the most widely used Python library for classical machine learning. But, it is necessary to include it in the discussion of statistical modeling as many classical machine learning (i.e. non-deep learning) algorithms can be classified as statistical learning techniques. This library contains a lot of efficient tools for machine learning and statistical modeling including classification, regression, clustering and dimensional reduction.

Conclusion

In this article, we covered a set of Python open-source libraries that form the foundation of statistical modelling, analysis, and visualization. On the data side, these libraries work seamlessly with the other data analytics and data engineering platforms, such as Pandas and Spark (through PySpark). For advanced machine learning tasks (e.g. deep learning), NumPy knowledge is directly transferable and applicable in popular packages such as TensorFlow and PyTorch. On the visual side, libraries like Matplotlib, integrate nicely with advanced dashboarding libraries like Bokeh and Plotly.

 

https://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/reference/api/pandas.DataFrame.html

 

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Automation is to Highly Impact the Knowledge Workers

Automation is to Highly Impact the Knowledge Workers

Automation will mainly target the knowledge workers, who are highly paid and educated and involved in thinking and analytical jobs.

The robot revolution is anticipated for quite some time now and with the ongoing advancements in Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence and Data Science, the future is near. However, it is also one of the most dreaded events for the workers going forward, who would be vulnerable to losing their respective jobs.

Going back to the 2017 McKinsey study, around 50% of the jobs in the manufacturing industries are automatable using the latest technology. However, according to the latest report, the white-collar workers, who are well-read and engaged in thinking and analytical jobs, are more likely to suffer the most.

According to a new study conducted by Michael Webb, Stanford University Economist, the powerful technologies of computer science like Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, which can make human-like decisions and grow using real-time data, will eventually target the white-collar workers. Artificial Intelligence has already made marked intrusions in the white-collar jobs, like telemarketing, which are primarily overseen by the bots. However, with the tireless efforts of the Data Scientists, along with the expansion of the Machine Learning course in India, it is believed to oust the majority of the knowledge workers, like chemical engineers, market researchers, market analysts, physicists, librarians and more.

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The new research focuses on the intersecting subject-noun pairs in AI patents and job descriptions to find out the jobs that will be heavily affected by the Ai technology. For example, the job descriptions of market research analysts comprise of “data analysis”, “identifying markets” and “track market trends”, which are in fact, all covered by the AI patents that are existing. This new study looks far more progressive than the previous ones because it analyzes patents for the technology which are yet to develop completely.

With the rising trends of Data Science and Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence has really come a long way from what an imaginary concept. Thus, courses like Machine Learning Using Python and Python for Data Analysis, are in heavy demands. 

 

This article has been sourced fromwww.vox.com/recode/2019/11/20/20964487/white-collar-automation-risk-stanford-brookings

 

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Decoding Advanced Loss Functions in Machine Learning: A Comprehensive Guide

Decoding Advanced Loss Functions in Machine Learning: A Comprehensive Guide

Every Machine Learning algorithm (Model) learns by the process of optimizing the loss functions. The loss function is a method of evaluating how accurate the given prediction is made. If predictions are off, then loss function will output a higher number. If they’re pretty good, it’ll output a lower number. If someone makes changes in the algorithm to improve the model, loss function will show the path in which one should proceed.

Machine Learning is growing as fast as ever in the age we are living, with a host of comprehensive Machine Learning course in India pacing their way to usher the future. Along with this, a wide range of courses like Machine Learning Using Python, Neural Network Machine Learning Python is becoming easily accessible to the masses with the help of Machine Learning institute in Gurgaon and similar institutes.

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We are having different types of loss functions.

  • Regression Loss Functions
  • Binary Classification Loss Functions
  • Multi-class Classification Loss Functions

Regression Loss Functions

  1. Mean Squared Error
  2. Mean Absolute Error
  3. Huber Loss Function

Binary Classification Loss Functions

  1. Binary Cross-Entropy
  2. Hinge Loss

Multi-class Classification Loss Functions

  1. Multi-class Cross Entropy Loss
  2. Kullback Leibler Divergence Loss

Mean Squared Error

Mean squared error is used to measure the average of the squared difference between predictions and actual observations. It considers the average magnitude of error irrespective of their direction.

This expression can be defined as the mean value of the squared deviations of the predicted values from that of true values. Here ‘n’ denotes the total number of samples in the data.

Mean Absolute Error

Absolute Error for each training example is the distance between the predicted and the actual values, irrespective of the sign.

MAE = | y-f(x) |

Absolute Error is also known as the L1 loss. The MAE cost is more robust to outliers as compared to MSE.

Huber Loss

Huber loss is a loss function used in robust regression. This is less sensitive to outliers in data than the squared error loss. The Huber loss function describes the penalty incurred by an estimation procedure f. Huber (1964) defines the loss function piecewise by:

This function is quadratic for small values of a, and linear for large values, with equal values and slopes of the different sections at the two points where |a|= 𝛿. The variable “a” often refers to the residuals, that is to the difference between the observed and predicted values a=y-f(x), so the former can be expanded to: –

Binary Classification Loss Functions

Binary classifications are those predictive modelling problems where examples are assigned one of two labels.

Binary Cross-Entropy

Cross-Entropy is the loss function used for binary classification problems. It is intended for use with binary classification.

Mathematically, it is the preferred loss function under the inference framework of maximum likelihood. Cross-entropy will calculate a score that summarizes the average difference between the actual and predicted probability distributions for predicting class 1. The score is minimized and a perfect cross-entropy value is 0.

Hinge Loss

The hinge loss function is popular with Support Vector Machines (SVMs). These are used for training the classifiers,

l(y) = max(0, 1- t•y)

where ‘t’ is the intended output and ‘y’ is the classifier score.

Hinge loss is convex function but is not differentiable which reduces its options for minimizing with few methods.

Multi-Class Classification Loss Functions

Multi-Class classifications are those predictive modelling problems where examples are assigned one of more than two classes.

Multi-Class Cross-Entropy

Cross-Entropy is the loss function used for multi-class classification problems. It is intended for use with multi-class classification.

Mathematically, it is the preferred loss function under the inference framework of maximum likelihood. Cross-entropy will calculate a score that summarizes the average difference between the actual and predicted probability distributions for all classes. The score is minimized and a perfect cross-entropy value is 0.

Kullback Leibler Divergence Loss

KL divergence is a natural way to measure the difference between two probability distributions.

A KL divergence loss of 0 suggests the distributions are identical. In practice, the behaviour of KL Divergence is very similar to cross-entropy. It calculates how much information is lost (in terms of bits) if the predicted probability distribution is used to approximate the desired target probability distribution.

There are also some advanced loss functions for machine learning models which are used for specific purposes.

  1. Robust Bi-Tempered Logistic Loss based on Bregman Divergences
  2. Minimax loss for GANs
  3. Focal Loss for Dense Object Detection
  4. Intersection over Union (IoU)-balanced Loss Functions for Single-stage Object Detection
  5. Boundary loss for highly unbalanced segmentation
  6. Perceptual Loss Function

Robust Bi-Tempered Logistic Loss based on Bregman Divergences

In this loss function, we introduce a temperature into the exponential function and replace the softmax output layer of the neural networks by a high-temperature generalization. Similarly, the logarithm in the loss we use for training is replaced by a low-temperature logarithm. By tuning the two temperatures, we create loss functions that are non-convex already in the single-layer case. When replacing the last layer of the neural networks by our bi-temperature generalization of the logistic loss, the training becomes more robust to noise. We visualize the effect of tuning the two temperatures in a simple setting and show the efficacy of our method on large datasets. Our methodology is based on Bregman divergences and is superior to a related two-temperature method that uses the Tsallis divergence.

Minimax loss for GANs

Minimax GAN loss refers to the minimax simultaneous optimization of the discriminator and generator models.

Minimax refers to an optimization strategy in two-player turn-based games for minimizing the loss or cost for the worst case of the other player.

For the GAN, the generator and discriminator are the two players and take turns involving updates to their model weights. The min and max refer to the minimization of the generator loss and the maximization of the discriminator’s loss.

Focal Loss for Dense Object Detection

The Focal Loss is designed to address the one-stage object detection scenario in which there is an extreme imbalance between foreground and background classes during training (e.g., 1:1000). Therefore, the classifier gets more negative samples (or more easy training samples to be more specific) compared to positive samples, thereby causing more biased learning.

The large class imbalance encountered during the training of dense detectors overwhelms the cross-entropy loss. Easily classified negatives comprise the majority of the loss and dominate the gradient. While the weighting factor (alpha) balances the importance of positive/negative examples, it does not differentiate between easy/hard examples. Instead, we propose to reshape the loss function to down-weight easy examples and thus, focus training on hard negatives. More formally, we propose to add a modulating factor (1 − pt) γ to the cross-entropy loss, with tunable focusing parameter γ ≥ 0. 

We define the focal loss as

FL(pt) = −(1 − pt) γ log(pt)

 

Intersection over Union (IoU)-balanced Loss Functions for Single-stage Object Detection

The IoU-balanced classification loss focuses on positive scenarios with high IoU can increase the correlation between classification and the task of localization. The loss aims at decreasing the gradient of the examples with low IoU and increasing the gradient of examples with high IoU. This increases the localization accuracy of models.

Boundary loss for highly unbalanced segmentation

Boundary loss takes the form of a distance metric on the space of contours (or shapes), not regions. This can mitigate the difficulties of regional losses in the context of highly unbalanced segmentation problems because it uses integrals over the boundary (interface) between regions instead of unbalanced integrals over regions. Furthermore, a boundary loss provides information that is complementary to regional losses. Unfortunately, it is not straightforward to represent the boundary points corresponding to the regional softmax outputs of a CNN. Our boundary loss is inspired by discrete (graph-based) optimization techniques for computing gradient flows of curve evolution.

Following an integral approach for computing boundary variations, we express a non-symmetric L2L2 distance on the space of shapes as a regional integral, which avoids completely local differential computations involving contour points. This yields a boundary loss expressed with the regional softmax probability outputs of the network, which can be easily combined with standard regional losses and implemented with any existing deep network architecture for N-D segmentation. We report comprehensive evaluations on two benchmark datasets corresponding to difficult, highly unbalanced problems: the ischemic stroke lesion (ISLES) and white matter hyperintensities (WMH). Used in conjunction with the region-based generalized Dice loss (GDL), our boundary loss improves performance significantly compared to GDL alone, reaching up to 8% improvement in Dice score and 10% improvement in Hausdorff score. It also yielded a more stable learning process.

Perceptual Loss Function

We consider image transformation problems, where an input image is transformed into an output image. Recent methods for such problems typically train feed-forward convolutional neural networks using a \emph{per-pixel} loss between the output and ground-truth images. Parallel work has shown that high-quality images can be generated by defining and optimizing \emph{perceptual} loss functions based on high-level features extracted from pre-trained networks. We combine the benefits of both approaches and propose the use of perceptual loss functions for training feed-forward networks for image transformation tasks. We show results on image style transfer, where a feed-forward network is trained to solve the optimization problem proposed by Gatys et al in real-time. Compared to the optimization-based method, our network gives similar qualitative results but is three orders of magnitude faster. We also experiment with single-image super-resolution, where replacing a per-pixel loss with a perceptual loss gives visually pleasing results.

Conclusion

Loss function takes the algorithm from theoretical to practical and transforms neural networks from matrix multiplication into deep learning. In this article, initially, we understood how loss functions work and then, we went on to explore a comprehensive list of loss functions also we have seen the very recent — advanced loss functions.

References: –
 
https://arxiv.org
https://www.wikipedia.org
 

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A Step-by-Step Guide on Python Variables

A Step-by-Step Guide on Python Variables

Variable is the name given to the memory location where data is stored. Once a variable is stored, space is allocated in memory. Variables are named locations that are used to store references to the object stored in memory.

With the rapid rise of the advanced programming techniques, matching with the pacing advancements of Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence, the need for Python for Data Analysis an Machine Learning Using Python is growing. However, when it comes to trustworthy courses, it is better to go for the best Python Certification Training in Delhi.

Now, coming to this article, here are some of the topics that will be covered in this article:

  • Rules to Define a Variable
  • Assigning Values to a Variable
  • Re-declaring a Variable in Python
  • Variable Scope
  • Deleting a Variable

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Rules to Define a Variable

These are the few rules to define a python variable:

  1. Python variable name can contain small case letters (a-z), upper case letters (A-Z), numbers (0-9), and underscore (_).
  2. A variable name can’t start with a number.
  3. We can’t use reserved keywords as a variable name.
  4. The variable name can be of any length.
  5. Python variable can’t contain only digits.
  6. The variable names are case sensitive.

Assigning Values to a Variable

There is no need for an explicit declaration to reserve memory. The assignment is done using the equal to (=) operator.

Multiple Assignment in Python

Multiple variables can be assigned to the same variable.

Multi-value Assignment in Python

Multiple variables can be assigned to multiple objects.

Re-declaring a Variable in Python

After declaring a variable, one can again declare it and assign a new value to it. Python interpreter discards the old value and only considers the new value. The type of the new value can be different than the type of the old value.

Variable Scope

A variable scope defines the area of accessibility of the variable in the program. A Python variable has two scopes:

  1. Local Scope
  2. Global Scope

Python Local Variable

When a variable is defined inside a function or a class, then it’s accessible only inside it. They are called local variables and their scope is only limited to that function or class boundary.

If we try to access a local variable outside its scope, we get an error that the variable is not defined.

Python Global Variable

When the variable is not inside a function or a class, it’s accessible from anywhere in the program. These variables are called global variables.

Deleting a Variable

One can delete variable using the command “del”.

In the example below, the variable “d” is deleted by using command Del and when it is further proceeded to print, we get an error “variable name is not defined” which means the variable is already deleted.

Conclusion

In this article we have learned the concepts of Python variables which are used in every program. We also learned the rules associated to the naming of a variable, assigning value to a variable, scope of a variable and deleting a variable.

So, if you are also hooked into Python and looking for the best courses, Python course in Gurgaon is certainly a gem of a course!



This technical blog is sourced from: www.askpython.com and intellipaat.com


 

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An In-depth Analysis of Game Theory for AI

An In-depth Analysis of Game Theory for AI

Game Theory is a branch of mathematics used to model the strategic interaction between different players in a context with predefined rules and outcomes. With the rapid rise of AI, along with the extensive time and research we are devoting to it, Game Theory is experiencing steady growth. If you are also interested in AI and want to be well-versed with it, then, opt for the Best Artificial Intelligence Training Institute in Gurgaon now!

Games have been one of the main areas of focus in artificial intelligence research. They often have simple rules that are easy to understand and train for. It is clear when one party wins, and frankly, it is fun watching a robot beat a human at chess. This trend of AI research being directed towards games is not at all an accident. Researchers know that the underlying principles of many tasks lie in understanding and mastering game theory. Both AI and game theory seek to find out how participants will react in different situations, figuring out the best response to situations, optimizing auction prices and finding market-clearing prices.

Some Useful Terms in Game Theory

  • Game: Like games in popular understanding, it can be any setting where players take actions and its outcome will depend on them.
  • Player: A strategic decision-maker within a game.
  • Strategy: A complete plan of actions a player will take, given the set of circumstances that might arise within the game.
  • Payoff: The gain a player receives from arriving at a particular outcome of a game.
  • Equilibrium: The point in a game where both players have made their decisions and an outcome is reached.
  • Dominant Strategy: When one strategy is better than another strategy for one player, regardless of the opponent’s play, the better strategy is known as a dominant strategy.
  • Agent: Agent is equivalent to a player.
  • Reward: A payoff of a game can also be termed as a reward.
  • State: All the information necessary to describe the situation an agent is in.
  • Action: Equivalent of a move in a game.
  • Policy: Similar to a strategy. It defines the action an agent will make when in particular states
  • Environment: Everything the agent interacts with during learning.

Different Types of Games in Game Theory

In the game theory, different types of games help in the analysis of different types of problems. The different types of games are formed based on number of players involved in a game, symmetry of the game, and cooperation among players.

Cooperative and Non-Cooperative Games

Cooperative games are the ones in which the players are convinced to adopt a particular strategy through negotiations and agreements between them.

Non-Cooperative games refer to the games in which the players decide on their strategy to maximize their profit. Non-cooperative games provide accurate results. This is because in non-cooperative games, a very deep analysis of a problem takes place.

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Normal Form and Extensive Form Games

Normal form games refer to the description of the game in the form of a matrix. In other words, when the payoff and strategies of a game are represented in a tabular form, it is termed as normal form games.

Extensive form games are the ones in which the description of the game is done in the form of a decision tree. Extensive form games help in the representation of events that can occur by chance.

Simultaneous Move Games and Sequential Move Games

Simultaneous games are the ones in which the move of two players (the strategy adopted by two players) is simultaneous. In a simultaneous move, players do not know the move of other players.

Sequential games are the ones in which the players do not have a deep knowledge about the strategies of other players.

Constant Sum, Zero Sum, and Non-Zero Sum Games

Constant sum games are the ones in which the sum of outcome of all the players remains constant even if the outcomes are different. 

Zero sum games are the ones in which the gain of one player is always equal to the loss of the other player. 

Non-zero sum games can be transformed to zero sum game by adding one dummy player. The losses of the dummy player are overridden by the net earnings of players. Examples of zero sum games are chess and gambling. In these games, the gain of one player results in the loss of the other player.

Symmetric and Asymmetric Games

Symmetric games are the ones where the strategies adopted by all the players are the same. Symmetry can exist in short-term games only because in long-term games the number of options with a player increases. 

Asymmetric games are the ones where the strategies adopted by players are different. In asymmetric games, the strategy that provides benefit to one player may not be equally beneficial for the other player.

Game Theory in Artificial Intelligence

Development of the majority of the popular games which we play in this digital world is with the help of AI and game theory. Game theory is used in AI whenever there is more than one person involved in solving a logical problem. There are various algorithms of Artificial Intelligence which are used in Game Theory. Minimax algorithm in Game Theory is one of the oldest algorithms in AI and is used generally for two players. Also, game theory is not only restricted to games but also relevant to the other large applications of AI like GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks).

GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks)

GAN consists of 2 models, a discriminative model and a generative model. These models are participants on the training phase which looks like a game between them, and each model tries to better than the other.

The target of the generative model is to generate samples that are considered to be fake and are supposed to have the same distribution of the original data samples; on the other hand, the target of discriminative is to enhance itself to be able to recognize the real samples among the fake samples generated by the generative model.

It looks like a game, in which each player (model) tries to be better than the other, the generative model tries to generate samples that deceive and tricks the discriminative model, while the discriminative model tries to get better in recognizing the real data and avoid the fake samples. It is the same idea of the Minimax algorithm, in which each player targets to outclass the other and minimize the supposed loss.

This game continues until a state where each model becomes an expert on what it is doing. The generative model increases its ability to get the actual data distribution and produces data like it, and the discriminative becomes an expert in identifying the real samples, which increases the system’s classification task. In such a case, each model satisfied by its output (strategy), this is called Nash Equilibrium in Game Theory.

Nash Equilibrium

Nash equilibrium, named after Nobel winning economist, John Nash, is a solution to a game involving two or more players who want the best outcome for themselves and must take the actions of others into account. When Nash equilibrium is reached, players cannot improve their payoff by independently changing their strategy. This means that it is the best strategy assuming the other has chosen a strategy and will not change it. For example, in the Prisoner’s Dilemma game, confessing is Nash equilibrium because it is the best outcome, taking into account the likely actions of others.

Conclusion

So in this article, the fundamentals of Game Theory and essential topics are covered in brief. Also, this article gives an idea of the influence of game theory artefacts in the AI space and how Game Theory is being used in the field of Machine Learning and its real-world implementations.

Machine Learning is an ever-expanding application of Artificial Intelligence with numerous applications in the other existing fields. Besides, Machine Learning Using Python is also on the verge of proving itself to be a foolproof technology in the coming years. So, don’t wait and enrol in the world-class Artificial Intelligence Certification in Delhi NCR now and rest assured! 

 

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