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Time Series Analysis Part I

Posted on January 18, 2021January 18, 2021 by Dexlab

A time series is a sequence of numerical data in which each item is associated with a particular instant in time. Many sets of data appear as time series: a monthly sequence of the quantity of goods shipped from a factory, a weekly series of the number of road accidents, daily rainfall amounts, hourly observations made on the yield of a chemical process, and so on. Examples of time series abound in such fields as economics, business, engineering, the natural sciences (especially geophysics and meteorology), and the social sciences.

Univariate time series analysis- When we have a single sequence of data observed over time then it is called univariate time series analysis.
Multivariate time series analysis – When we have several sets of data for the same sequence of time periods to observe then it is called multivariate time series analysis.

The data used in time series analysis is a random variable (Yt) where t is denoted as time and such a collection of random variables ordered in time is called random or stochastic process.

Stationary: A time series is said to be stationary when all the moments of its probability distribution i.e. mean, variance , covariance etc. are invariant over time. It becomes quite easy forecast data in this kind of situation as the hidden patterns are recognizable which make predictions easy.

Non-stationary: A non-stationary time series will have a time varying mean or time varying variance or both, which makes it impossible to generalize the time series over other time periods.

Non stationary processes can further be explained with the help of a term called Random walk models. This term or theory usually is used in stock market which assumes that stock prices are independent of each other over time. Now there are two types of random walks:
Random walk with drift : When the observation that is to be predicted at a time ‘t’ is equal to last period’s value plus a constant or a drift (α) and the residual term (ε). It can be written as
Yt= α + Yt-1 + εt
The equation shows that Yt drifts upwards or downwards depending upon α being positive or negative and the mean and the variance also increases over time.
Random walk without drift: The random walk without a drift model observes that the values to be predicted at time ‘t’ is equal to last past period’s value plus a random shock.
Yt= Yt-1 + εt
Consider that the effect in one unit shock then the process started at some time 0 with a value of Y0
When t=1
Y1= Y0 + ε1
When t=2
Y2= Y1+ ε2= Y0 + ε1+ ε2
In general,
Yt= Y0+∑ εt
In this case as t increases the variance increases indefinitely whereas the mean value of Y is equal to its initial or starting value. Therefore the random walk model without drift is a non-stationary process.

So, with that we come to the end of the discussion on the Time Series. Hopefully it helped you understand time Series, for more information you can also watch the video tutorial attached down this blog. DexLab Analytics offers machine learning courses in delhi. To keep on learning more, follow DexLab Analytics blog.

An Introductory Guide to NumPy

Posted on November 25, 2020November 25, 2020 by Dexlab

NumPy also known as numerical python, is a library consisting of multidimensional array objects and a collection of routines for processing those arrays. Using NumPy, mathematical and logical operations on arrays can be performed without it which was not possible. For example-

Multiplication of two lists will cause an error as a data structure like lists, tuple, dictionaries and sets do not allow mathematical operations.

Therefore we need NumPy to covert our data structures like lists into 1d, 2d, 3d or nd arrays so that mathematical operations can be performed. U

We can use .array() methods to create these arrays.

Now let’s check out few examples and also perform few mathematical operations to have a better understanding.

In the above code we first import NumPy library and then use .array() method to two 1d-array a1 and b1 using the list we previously created.
Now let’s multiply a1 and b1 array.
Now let’s use .array() method to directly create an array.

Arrays can be created using lists, tuples and dictionaries as you can see in the above example.

Now for 2-d arrays recall that we can also make list of lists. Let’s use that to create 2d-arrays.

2d-arrays can also be created using tuples.

Remember that we are not using these as matrices because matrix multiplication is an entirely different thing we are just trying to perform mathematical operations which were otherwise not possible.

Random Module

Numpy also has various ways with which we can create array of random numbers which then can be used in number of ways like generating a data for practice purposes or for building beautiful graphs for a presentation.

Given below is a list of type of random numbers you can generate

.rand() :- This particular method helps you generate uniformly distributed random numbers i.e. numbers between 0 and 1 where each number between 0 and 1 will have equal probability to be in the sample dataset.

The above code generates a 2d-array with values between 0 and 1.

.randn():- This method generates normally distributed random numbers i.e. numbers between -3 and +3 where mean=median=mode and ploted gives a bell shaped curve.

Here the 20 random numbers are generated ranging between -3 and + 3.

Note:- Remember that the data is randomly picked from the normally distributed values between -3 and +3 so the graph is not bell shaped but the original data from which the values are being picked randomly is bell shaped with mean=median-mode.

.randint():-This method generates random integers between a given range.

So, with that we come to the end of the discussion on the Numpy. Hopefully it helped you understand Numpy, for more information you can also watch the video tutorial attached down this blog. DexLab Analytics offers machine learning courses in delhi. To keep on learning more, follow DexLab Analytics blog.

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